African American Women's Suffrage: An Overview
Discriminated by both their race and their gender, African American Women struggled the most in their fight for the vote. Though they were accepted by neither white women nor white men, the majority of Black men supported their suffrage; black women’s right to vote meant the entire black community’s right to vote. African American women needed the ballot to fight against their sexual exploitation, rights for interracial marriage, rights to a better education and labor rights in addition to the white suffragist concerns of rights outside the home. They needed a voice more than anyone because they were battling not one, but two prejudices. Black women faced the same opposition as did white women in their fight: Women should not be distracted from their roles as wives who stayed in the home cooking, cleaning and raising children to involve them with male-dominated politics. The old stereotypes of aggressive, over sexualized angry black women reemerged in campaigns against African American suffrage. African American Women were not discouraged by these ideas and formed groups such as the Alpha Suffrage Club to fight in unison for their voice. Though white suffragists feared that support of African American suffrage would jeopardize their campaign, they fought for similar rights against universal gender discrimination. Black women needed to gain acceptance of both their gender and their race in order to gain their right to vote.
Cult of True Womanhood; The Angry Black Woman
Femanist Activism was so scandelous in the 1800's because women were just not often seen in public, discussing politics. Slavery de-humanized African American Women and took away their gender: they were chattle made to reproduce and the thought that chattle should have voting rights was ridiculous. White "Women had an almost sacred place in the home, supporting her husband and raising the next generation of citizens" (Treacy, 46). White women were pure-almost angelic, who nurtured and cleansed society by their dedication to family. Males argued against wite women's suffrage because being involved in "the rough and tumble of political life would be to insist that they [white women] be part of the corruption, the sinful greed, the very political problem that woman, from her pedestal of purity, could help to change" (Treacy, 47). Men argued that women (negro and caucasian) did not need the vote because they were influential inside the home anyways. Both african american and white women were denied the vote because of their gender, but the reasoning for it was different. While white women were too pure, African American women were too corrupt (Hammonds, 173). The vote would distract women from their natural duties as mothers. Many Whites held on to the "angry, over sexualized black stereotype. Senator Ben Tillman expressed that "Experience has taught us the negro women are much more aggressive in asserting the rights of the race than the negro men are. In other words, they have always urged the negro men on in the conflicts we have had in the past between two races for supremacy...the Negro woman will bemore offensive, more difficult to handle at the polls than the Negro man" (Giddings, 123).
The Negro Male
African american men, for the most part, supported femanism and suffrage. A male femanist, W.E.B. DuBois explained that "votes for women, means votes for black women" (Giddings, 121). A black female vote meant a vote for the race. Black males opposed black women's rights less because they generally had less control over their women. In slavery, negro men did not own their wives; the white slave owners did. Once slavery was over, black women had no choice but to go out and get jobs. Though black women mostly did paid domestic work, it was not in their own home nor under their husband's supervision. White women, on the contrary, often stayed in their own home and many did not have paid jobs. Because negro women had more domestic freedom in the past, most negro men did not feel that they were losing their power and control over women.
There were, of course, black men that opposed suffrage. Many religious leaders (particularly Baptist) were opposed to women leaving the home to get involved in politics, their claimed that "women should only be involved in singing and prayer" in the church, and then go home. Kelly Miller, an educator, understood that widows and spinsters who have no one to protect them might need suffrage, but for every one else "such status is not contemplated as a normal social relation" (Giddings, 120).
There were, of course, black men that opposed suffrage. Many religious leaders (particularly Baptist) were opposed to women leaving the home to get involved in politics, their claimed that "women should only be involved in singing and prayer" in the church, and then go home. Kelly Miller, an educator, understood that widows and spinsters who have no one to protect them might need suffrage, but for every one else "such status is not contemplated as a normal social relation" (Giddings, 120).
First Step to Getting Involved in Politics
In 1837 An Anti-slavery Convention of African American Women was held, discussing their right to speak out outside the home. Though suffrage was not a pressing issue to be discussed at this convention, people expressed that there was a need for women to "understand and influence public policy and law" (Gordon, 5). This convention signifies the beginning of African American unity towards a cause; it introduces the idea that African American Women should have the right to speak out in public on political issues: a voice in politics is the basis of female suffrage.
In the begining of their fight for a voice in politics, women used peaceful tactics and held on to the idea that through quiet reason, they would gain their rights. Early african american suffragists joined in a sisterhood with white suffragists, trying to create a unity that would overcome the racism to focus on their mutual gender discrimination. They expessed ideas such as: “the more we mingle with our oppressed brethren and sisters, the more deeply are we convinced of the sinfulness of that anti-Christian prejudice…[the] duty of every woman [is] to pray to be delivered from such an unholy feeling and to act out the principles of Christian equality by associating with them as though the color of the skin was no more consequence than that of the hair, or the eyes” (Gordon, 4). As suffrage progressed, though, African American's voices grew louder and and more aggressive. When women's rights issue's were first starting to be discussed, most white femanists supported universal rights: "Many white women saw a special connection between their own condition and that of a slave, seeing both as examples of oppression." Women, uniting under gender created "Ladies Anti-Slave Societies" and when out of the home to circle petitions against slavery: By fighting against Nego women's enslavement, their fought for their own gender's rights as well (Treacy, 45).
The northern activist women were not afraid of insulting the south's long tradition of slavery, it was "an act that challenged the public's tolerance of slavery just as it transgressed the customary confinement of women to the home and private spirituality" (Treacy, 45).
1848- The Seneca Falls Convention, lasting two days, was held to officially discuss the importance of Women's injustices and right to vote (Gordon,4). At this convention, Fredrick Douglass was the only man to promote of suffrage (Giddings, 126). Also at the convention, Elizabeth Cady Stanton presented her Declaration of Sentiments which introduced the revolutionary idea that men are denying women their natural rights and women need to have to right to vote.
1869- National Woman's Suffrage Association (NWSA) founded.
1869-"Boston-based American Women's Suffrage Association (AWSA)" was founded. This orginiazation was more open to African American support then the NWSA (Treacy,48).
1870-Fifteenth Amendment passed, granting voting rights to all men, regardless of color, or "previous condition of servitude" (Treacy, 47).
It was then that the people, who had faught earlier for universal suffrage, split between gender. Men argued that negro men gaining the right to vote was already a giant step for African Americans. Men had gained the vote-women had to wait.
1878- Susan B. Anthony amendment was first introduced to Congress: “The right of
citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex" (Giddings, 129).
1890- The two orginizations, NWSA and AWSA, combined to form the National American Women's Suffrage Association (NAWSA) (Treacy, 48).
1894- National Americans Women's Suffrage Association (NAWSA) convention in Atlanta, Georgia was the first official suffrage convention in the south to introduce the White suffragist's theory of expediency (Giddings,129).
In the begining of their fight for a voice in politics, women used peaceful tactics and held on to the idea that through quiet reason, they would gain their rights. Early african american suffragists joined in a sisterhood with white suffragists, trying to create a unity that would overcome the racism to focus on their mutual gender discrimination. They expessed ideas such as: “the more we mingle with our oppressed brethren and sisters, the more deeply are we convinced of the sinfulness of that anti-Christian prejudice…[the] duty of every woman [is] to pray to be delivered from such an unholy feeling and to act out the principles of Christian equality by associating with them as though the color of the skin was no more consequence than that of the hair, or the eyes” (Gordon, 4). As suffrage progressed, though, African American's voices grew louder and and more aggressive. When women's rights issue's were first starting to be discussed, most white femanists supported universal rights: "Many white women saw a special connection between their own condition and that of a slave, seeing both as examples of oppression." Women, uniting under gender created "Ladies Anti-Slave Societies" and when out of the home to circle petitions against slavery: By fighting against Nego women's enslavement, their fought for their own gender's rights as well (Treacy, 45).
The northern activist women were not afraid of insulting the south's long tradition of slavery, it was "an act that challenged the public's tolerance of slavery just as it transgressed the customary confinement of women to the home and private spirituality" (Treacy, 45).
1848- The Seneca Falls Convention, lasting two days, was held to officially discuss the importance of Women's injustices and right to vote (Gordon,4). At this convention, Fredrick Douglass was the only man to promote of suffrage (Giddings, 126). Also at the convention, Elizabeth Cady Stanton presented her Declaration of Sentiments which introduced the revolutionary idea that men are denying women their natural rights and women need to have to right to vote.
1869- National Woman's Suffrage Association (NWSA) founded.
1869-"Boston-based American Women's Suffrage Association (AWSA)" was founded. This orginiazation was more open to African American support then the NWSA (Treacy,48).
1870-Fifteenth Amendment passed, granting voting rights to all men, regardless of color, or "previous condition of servitude" (Treacy, 47).
It was then that the people, who had faught earlier for universal suffrage, split between gender. Men argued that negro men gaining the right to vote was already a giant step for African Americans. Men had gained the vote-women had to wait.
1878- Susan B. Anthony amendment was first introduced to Congress: “The right of
citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex" (Giddings, 129).
1890- The two orginizations, NWSA and AWSA, combined to form the National American Women's Suffrage Association (NAWSA) (Treacy, 48).
1894- National Americans Women's Suffrage Association (NAWSA) convention in Atlanta, Georgia was the first official suffrage convention in the south to introduce the White suffragist's theory of expediency (Giddings,129).
1890's
Selling the Vote:
African American Women were starting to become louder in their arguments for their right to vote. An large issue at hand was that dsperately poor black men, who could vote, would sell their vote to "White Supremacist Politicians" in exchange for material possessions or protection. Women, in turn, argued that they would never do such a thing and even threatened to leave their husbands if they did not take advantage of their power to vote. Nannie Helen Burroughs explained that "If women cannot vote, they should make it very uncomfortable for the men who have the ballot but do not know it's value" (Giddings, 122). Ironically, African American women used the argument that "the African American woman is always sound and orthodox on questions affecting the well being of the race" (Giddings, 123), while it was exactly that womanly stereotype that men used to argure that women were ment to only be inside the home.
The Colored Split:
In the 1890's suffragists started to split over the color line; they were no longer fighting for universal female justice, but for their individual selves.
The old suffragist argument was that it as not just for an unqualified man to vote, while the most educated and respectable women could not. en who were illiterate, drunkards, lynchers could vote! Suffragist Frances Ellen Harper said that the hands of lynchers “are too red with blood to determine the political character of government” (Giddings 125).
In 1893, in all States, there were more white females that could read than there were negro and foreign voters.
In the 1890's suffragists split over what they though the qualifications for voting should be: White women wanted an education requirement in voting while negro women thought that character was the most important qualification for a voter (Giddings, 123-125). Black's probably disagreed with the education requirements because, though they were intelligent, many of them just did not have acess to good education and white racists could use this to deny them the ballot.
It was around this time that White suffragists, in desperation to get the female right to vote, submitted to the large racist population and developed a theory of Expediency:
African American Women were starting to become louder in their arguments for their right to vote. An large issue at hand was that dsperately poor black men, who could vote, would sell their vote to "White Supremacist Politicians" in exchange for material possessions or protection. Women, in turn, argued that they would never do such a thing and even threatened to leave their husbands if they did not take advantage of their power to vote. Nannie Helen Burroughs explained that "If women cannot vote, they should make it very uncomfortable for the men who have the ballot but do not know it's value" (Giddings, 122). Ironically, African American women used the argument that "the African American woman is always sound and orthodox on questions affecting the well being of the race" (Giddings, 123), while it was exactly that womanly stereotype that men used to argure that women were ment to only be inside the home.
The Colored Split:
In the 1890's suffragists started to split over the color line; they were no longer fighting for universal female justice, but for their individual selves.
The old suffragist argument was that it as not just for an unqualified man to vote, while the most educated and respectable women could not. en who were illiterate, drunkards, lynchers could vote! Suffragist Frances Ellen Harper said that the hands of lynchers “are too red with blood to determine the political character of government” (Giddings 125).
In 1893, in all States, there were more white females that could read than there were negro and foreign voters.
In the 1890's suffragists split over what they though the qualifications for voting should be: White women wanted an education requirement in voting while negro women thought that character was the most important qualification for a voter (Giddings, 123-125). Black's probably disagreed with the education requirements because, though they were intelligent, many of them just did not have acess to good education and white racists could use this to deny them the ballot.
It was around this time that White suffragists, in desperation to get the female right to vote, submitted to the large racist population and developed a theory of Expediency:
The Theory of Expediency
The plan was to get the vote for women before focusing on getting the vote for Negro women. Suffragists would gain less support if they included Negro's in their campain because of the double-discrimination that they would have to overcome: race and gender. White racism would slow down or put a complete stop to female suffrage if the racists thought that Negros would also be able to vote (Treacy, 48). Once they got rid of the gender issue, it would be much easier to focus on the seperate, racial issue. Not all white suffragists who supported Expediency were racist, but they had turned their focus away from social justice, to their own personal justice. Before, when white women supported universal gender rights in the fight for Abolition, they were not fearful of alienating the South. Now, to gain enough support to pass a federal law, women desperatly needed the reinforcement of southerners. Suffragists also needed funding for their cause, thus they tried to recruit the rich, elite class. White Politicians and white racists were afriad of Negro's being allowed to vote. In some states, such as South Carolina, Blacks outnumbered whites by as much as 100,000. They were simply fearful of black and immigrant domination (Giddings, 124). White suffragists started to use this fear of black domination in the south to their own benefit by to persuading racists that support of white women's vote meant support of white supremacy.
Susan B. Anthony fervently advocated the idea of expediency, but she often invited Negro suffragists to her home too female issues. When Ida Wells-Barnett came to visit Anthony concerning racial and female injustices, Anthony explained "Well, now, when women get the ballot, all that will be changed" (Giddings, 125).
In the 1890's Blacks tried to get NAWSA in fighting against segregation and fighting for Negro Women's rights but
they were turned down because of the large number of racist members that were insulted and strongly against rights for negro's. Susan B. Anthony, a member of the NAWSA also refused a group of Black women who wanted her help in organizing a negro branch of the NAWSA because it was "inexpedient" (Giddings,127).
1899- Susan B. Anthony officially stated at a convention at Grand Rapids that woman's suffrage and black issues were
"completely seperate causes" (Giddings, 127). Thus showing a segregated and racist split between white and Black suffragists.
1903- NAWSA let individual states further segragate the association by letting them determine their own,
individual qualifications for membership.
1913-Alpha Suffrage Club was founded by Ida Wells-Barnett.
1913- The NAWSA held a suffrage parade in Washington D.C. the day before Woodrow WIlson was elected president to gather attention to their cause. Showing the true racism and segragation that came with expediency, the Association asked Ida Wells-Barnett (a negro activist) and her Alpha Club to walk in the back of the parade. In the middle of the parade, Ida Wells-Barnett appeared closer to the front, placing herself between two white women. African American women were no longer content waiting for white women to get the vote before black women. Now, instead of unifying under a mutual sisterhood, suffrage support split over race.
1913- A southern states womans suffrage conference used the threat that "black women would get the vote if suffrage was a federal ammendment" to persuade state legislatures to support state-by-state suffrage (Giddings, 128). If women gained the vote in each individual state, then each state could set the qualifications for votes, meaning that states could allow the white women's vote and deny the black women's vote.
Susan B. Anthony fervently advocated the idea of expediency, but she often invited Negro suffragists to her home too female issues. When Ida Wells-Barnett came to visit Anthony concerning racial and female injustices, Anthony explained "Well, now, when women get the ballot, all that will be changed" (Giddings, 125).
In the 1890's Blacks tried to get NAWSA in fighting against segregation and fighting for Negro Women's rights but
they were turned down because of the large number of racist members that were insulted and strongly against rights for negro's. Susan B. Anthony, a member of the NAWSA also refused a group of Black women who wanted her help in organizing a negro branch of the NAWSA because it was "inexpedient" (Giddings,127).
1899- Susan B. Anthony officially stated at a convention at Grand Rapids that woman's suffrage and black issues were
"completely seperate causes" (Giddings, 127). Thus showing a segregated and racist split between white and Black suffragists.
1903- NAWSA let individual states further segragate the association by letting them determine their own,
individual qualifications for membership.
1913-Alpha Suffrage Club was founded by Ida Wells-Barnett.
1913- The NAWSA held a suffrage parade in Washington D.C. the day before Woodrow WIlson was elected president to gather attention to their cause. Showing the true racism and segragation that came with expediency, the Association asked Ida Wells-Barnett (a negro activist) and her Alpha Club to walk in the back of the parade. In the middle of the parade, Ida Wells-Barnett appeared closer to the front, placing herself between two white women. African American women were no longer content waiting for white women to get the vote before black women. Now, instead of unifying under a mutual sisterhood, suffrage support split over race.
1913- A southern states womans suffrage conference used the threat that "black women would get the vote if suffrage was a federal ammendment" to persuade state legislatures to support state-by-state suffrage (Giddings, 128). If women gained the vote in each individual state, then each state could set the qualifications for votes, meaning that states could allow the white women's vote and deny the black women's vote.
Black Suffrage Community
By the 1900's there were black suffrage clubs in:
-Tuskegee
-St. Louis
-Los Angeles
-Memphis
-Boston
-Charleston
-New Orleans
There were also State Suffrage Societies in:
-Delaware
-Idaho
-Montana
-North Dakota
-Texas
-New York
-Maryland
In New York, women had the vote before it was federal law and 75 thousand black women were registered to vote
1901- Colored Women's Republican Club created.
1906- In the Denver, Colorado election, a greater percentage of black women voted than white women.
1914- Chicago's Alpha Suffrage Club helped Oscar DePriest, a black candidate, get elected for alderman. He won against two white candidates. (Giddings, 130)
After 1916, Black women started to become more and more aggressive in their campaignes for the vote, instead of quietly fighting. They organized voter education clubs and gathered and presented petitions. Women enthusiasticly voted in states that had the franchise. The Black club organization had a specific suffrage department that represented 40,000 negro women. The NAACP also created a suffrage department and continued on to create more suffrage clubs.
1916- The NAWSA finally endorsed the passage of the Susan B. Anthony Amendment (asking for universal suffrage on a National level), reasoning that campaigning state-by-state for suffrage would take too much time and money (GIddings, 128).
-Tuskegee
-St. Louis
-Los Angeles
-Memphis
-Boston
-Charleston
-New Orleans
There were also State Suffrage Societies in:
-Delaware
-Idaho
-Montana
-North Dakota
-Texas
-New York
-Maryland
In New York, women had the vote before it was federal law and 75 thousand black women were registered to vote
1901- Colored Women's Republican Club created.
1906- In the Denver, Colorado election, a greater percentage of black women voted than white women.
1914- Chicago's Alpha Suffrage Club helped Oscar DePriest, a black candidate, get elected for alderman. He won against two white candidates. (Giddings, 130)
After 1916, Black women started to become more and more aggressive in their campaignes for the vote, instead of quietly fighting. They organized voter education clubs and gathered and presented petitions. Women enthusiasticly voted in states that had the franchise. The Black club organization had a specific suffrage department that represented 40,000 negro women. The NAACP also created a suffrage department and continued on to create more suffrage clubs.
1916- The NAWSA finally endorsed the passage of the Susan B. Anthony Amendment (asking for universal suffrage on a National level), reasoning that campaigning state-by-state for suffrage would take too much time and money (GIddings, 128).
Why Vote?
Almost all black women supported suffrage in some way. White women and black women both wanted the vote so that they could protect their rights, but the most important issue for black women was protection from sexual exploitation. Nannie Helen Burroughs explains that when the issue of sexual abuse is brought up in courth "In defense of her virtue, she is looked upon with contempt... she needs the ballot to reckon with men who place no value upon her virtue" (Giddings, 121).
They also wanted to vote in hopes that they could control prostitution. They wanted to "vote down the prohabitions of interracial marriage". They hoped to improve Education through legislators and school boards and help women work toward obligatory education in the south.
One of the largest reasons for the black female vote, since most negro women were working full time jobs, was the protecting of their labor rights (Giddings, 121).
They also wanted to vote in hopes that they could control prostitution. They wanted to "vote down the prohabitions of interracial marriage". They hoped to improve Education through legislators and school boards and help women work toward obligatory education in the south.
One of the largest reasons for the black female vote, since most negro women were working full time jobs, was the protecting of their labor rights (Giddings, 121).
The Vote
1920- White women gain the right to vote.
1965- Universal Suffrage regardless of Race or gender.
1965- Universal Suffrage regardless of Race or gender.
Advocators of Women's Rights
Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902)
Lucretia Mott (1793-1880)
Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906)
Frederick Douglass (1817-1895)
Sojourner Truth (1797-1883)
Harriet Tubman
Frances Ellen Harper
Mary Church Terrell
Lucretia Mott (1793-1880)
Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906)
Frederick Douglass (1817-1895)
Sojourner Truth (1797-1883)
Harriet Tubman
Frances Ellen Harper
Mary Church Terrell